New Orleans: Crescent of Darkness- A Threads of Damocles "A" Universe


	Shadows in the Darkness: History of New Orleans since the world left. (1889-1929 ) Colonial Era American Era Elections of 1888 Nightfall Irish Riots John Fitzpatrick (1892-1896) The Citizen's League Mayor (1896-1900) Paul Capdevielle, Mayor (1900- 1904) The World Returns The Streetcar Strike of 1901 Martin Behrman (1904- 1920) The Cede Andrew McShane (1920-1925) Pirate Attack Present Day Colonial History New Orleans was founded in 1718 by the French as La Nouvelle-Orléans , under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. The site was selected because it was a rare bit of natural high ground along the flood-prone banks of the lower Mississippi , and was adjacent to a Native American trading route and portage between the Mississippi and Lake Pontchartrain via Bayou St. John (known to natives as Bayou Choupique). A community of French fur trappers and traders had existed along the bayou (in what is now the middle of New Orleans ) for more than a decade before the official founding of the city. Nouvelle-Orléans became the capital of French Louisiana in 1722, replacing Biloxi . In 1763, the colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire and remained under Spanish control for 40 years. The Great Fire of 1788 destroyed many of the existing structures in the city (800 houses were destroyed), which were made of wood. As a result of this, and a subsequent fire in 1795 (another 200 houses destroyed), much of 18th century architecture still present in the French Quarter was built under Spanish rule and demonstrates Spanish colonial characteristics, wood being replaced with bricks. The three most impressive buildings of New Orleans come from the Spanish times: St. Louis Cathedral, the Cabildo and the Presbytere. In 1795, Spain granted the United States "Right of Deposit" in New Orleans , allowing Americans to use the city's port facilities. Louisiana reverted to French control in 1801 after Napoleon re-acquired the territory from Spain by treaty. But in 1803, Napoleon sold Louisiana (which then included portions of more than a dozen present-day states) to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase . At this time the city of New Orleans had a population of about 10,000. The American Era In its early days it was noted for its cosmopolitan polyglot population and mixture of cultures. The city grew rapidly, with influxes of Americans, French and Creole French, many of the latter fleeing from the revolution in Haiti . During the War of 1812 the British sent a force to try to conquer the city, but they were defeated by forces led by Andrew Jackson some miles down river from the city at Chalmette , Louisiana on January 8, 1815 (commonly known as the Battle of New Orleans). The population of the city doubled in the 1830s, and by 1840 the city's population was around 102,000, fourth-largest in the U.S, the largest city away from the Atlantic seaboard, as well as the largest in the South after Baltimore . However, population growth was at times plagued by yellow fever epidemics, such as the great scourge of 1853 that killed nearly 10,000 people in New Orleans . New Orleans was the capital of the state of Louisiana until 1849, then again from 1865 to 1880. As a principal port it had a leading role in the slave trade, while at the same time having North America 's largest community of free persons of color. Early in the American Civil War it was captured by the Union (by David Farragut, son of Spanish emigrants, later named the first US Navy Vice-Admiral) without a battle, and hence was spared the destruction suffered by many other cities of the American South. It was the first captured city in the American South. It retains a historical flavor with a wealth of 19th century structures far beyond the early colonial city boundaries of the French Quarter. The city hosted the 1884 World's Fair, called the World Cotton Centennial. 1888 City Elections The 1888 city elections were a turning point in the politics of New Orleans. Joseph A. Shakespeare (Former mayor 1880-1882) ran for a second term against the City Ring, who were supporters of the State Ring. The election was won by Shakespeare and the City Ring had to lick it's wounds for the time being. Nightfall June 16 1889 was the last day New Orleans would see a sunrise or sunset. The night sky stopped moving at 11:59 PM (though some would say that it was Midnight , and therefore June 17 th , ) and has not moved by any measurable amount in 40 years. An unusual storm had been building the entire day of the 16 th and was whipping the waters of the Ponchartrain into whitecaps and smashing them over the levees. Alarmed by the unnatural occurrence (it was unlike any hurricane or storm ever recorded in New Orleans,) a ritual was performed by a handful of local Vodun. (Rumors abound that the younger Marie Laveau had gathered them and used her Mother's Skull in the ritual, and that earlier in the day a cat had broken the scrying mirror of Marie the elder releasing the storm.) The ritual was completed at 11:59:59 just before the clock struck Midnight . The storm mysteriously dissipated and after a pause, the clocks struck midnight . The Irish Lynching Riots While investigating the barrel murder of an Italian immigrant, Police Chief David Hennessey discovered the existence of a secret society operating in New Orleans, the Mafia. After collecting enough evidence to go public, shortly before he could come forward, he was assassinated on October 15, 1890. His dying words to another officer were reported to have been "Dagos did it", dago being an insulting slur for Italians. This killing became the first widely publicized Mafia incident in the United States, and resulted in hundreds of baseless arrests of newly arrived Italian immigrants and a major trial in 1891 in New Orleans in which nineteen people were indicted. Rumors about the Sicilian "Mafia" trying to take over New Orleans spread throughout the city, adding to the extreme prejudice and fear of the poor Italian immigrants that many native United States citizens had already developed. A large riot occurred after those indicted were acquitted, with a mob storming the jailhouse and lynching the accused Italians, along with ten other Italians, none of whom had been involved in the case. The lynch mob brutally mutilated the Italian immigrants, apparently shouting, "Hang the dagos!" According to witnesses, the "cheers were deafening." Afterwards, a local paper recorded the incident, proclaiming "The little jail was crowded with Sicilians, whose low, receding foreheads, dark skin, repulsive countenances and slovenly attire proclaimed their brutal nature." Mayor John Fitzpatrick 1892-1896 The 1892 Elections were notably quiet, and while the City thirsted for information from the outside world, they were happy to be only involved in local politcs. John Fitzpatrick was elected over Mayor Shakespeare, as supported by a newly strengthened City Ring. In his inaugural message to the council Fitzpatrick called attention to the numerous contracts given out by the previous administration. He promised to lend his best efforts to see that the obligations thus created were carried out. The history of his administration, insofar as its constructive politics were concerned, may be largely written in terms of the execution of these contracts. One of the most important of them was the completion of the purchase of the apparatus of the volunteer fire companies as part of the organization of the paid department. Another important contract which Fitzpatrick inherited from his predecessor was that for the erection of the new courthouse and jail. The site for this building was already bought on Tulane Avenue, but the edifice was erected under the new administration and furnished throughout at a cost of $455,000. As originally contemplated, the payments for this important public improvement were to be made from the revenues of 1892-1897, but to the credit of the Fitzpatrick administration it must be said that it was all accomplished without trenching upon the revenues of the years subsequent to 1893. The Fitzpatrick administration promptly put into place plans for a city wide drainage system, establishment of a Public Library, and electrification of the city railroads. Most of these works were completed, utilizing material from the Upriver region. However, by 1894 the administration was embroiled in a scandal regarding rail lines and what detractors painted as bribery and graft. Fitzpatrick refused to suspend indicted members of the council, more from a political loyalty than any personal friendship and found himself reviled by the press and the public alike. He was soon facing impeachment proceedings, however the Mayor was eventually cleared of all charges. Throughout Mayor Fitzpatrick's term there was trouble in the ranks of local labor. His enemies seized upon this circumstance to criticise the mayor for his well-known partiality towards the laboring man. The difficulties were attributed by these persons to his unwillingness to attack the problem of labor courageously and firmly. The Citizen's League Mayor The movement of protest against the existing situation in municipal affairs culminated in January, 1896, in the organization of a new political party, which called itself the Citizens' League. This organization was non-partisan, aimed only at the election of new city officials, the overturning of the system which had long dominated the administration of local affairs, and the election of such members from the city districts as would work for laws in line with these objects. The league announced its candidate for mayor on March 21, 1896. The publication of the remainder of the ticket was postponed until the plans of the opposition could be seen. Walter C. Flower was the choice for mayor. Flower was a democrat of long standing and had always been a staunch, though not conspicuous, supporter of every movement in behalf of better government in the city. He had served two terms as president of the Cotton Exchange, in 1891 and 1892. The announcement that he had been selected to head the reform ticket was made by the Citizens' League speakers at a mass-meeting in the Fifth Ward. It was received with general satisfaction throughout the city. The election took place on April 21. Considering the excitement which had attended the canvass, election day passed off with astonishingly little trouble. This result was perhaps due to the fact that the Citizens' League was known to be prepared for all eventualities. Its headquarters were established at Odd Fellows Hall, which then overlooked Lafayette Square. Here the threads of the organization were held by the leaders. A moment's notice would suffice to bring thither hundreds of resolute men. A force of 1,500 citizens armed with revolvers were distributed through the city in squads at the various polling places. Fortunately, no occasion rose to test the efficiency of these arrangements. Save for a cutting affair in the Third Ward, and sundry fist-fights, the day passed uneventfully. Mayor Flower was inaugurated on April 27, 1896. His administration was, in the main, occupied with the re‑organization of the city government made necessary as a result of the enactment of the city charter of 1896. It will be remembered that one of the features of the Citizens' League program was the reform of the basic law of the city. The preliminary steps looking to a modern system of drainage had been taken in the Fitzpatrick administration, but now Abraham Brittin, who had been elected to the city council on the Citizens' League ticket, distinguished himself by his advocacy of a plan whereby the city itself should undertake the work, and not leave it with a private corporation. Brittin demanded that with drainage should go water-supply and sewage, p526 and that these various activities should be concentrated under the control of a single board, and not left to the management of the city council. Another important project made effective during the Flower administration was to put the wires underground in the commercial district. This was done by Ordinance No. 13,838, adopted December 15, 1897. In 1899 the Sixth and Seventh Municipal Districts were for the first time lighted by electricity. Hitherto they had depended upon gas as an illuminant. The rest of the city had enjoyed the advantages of electric lighting since 1887. The stimulating effect of the new order of things which began under Flower was felt also in the management of the city schools. Down to 1862 the old system of separate school boards which grew up between 1836 and 1852 was allowed to continue unchanged. Unfortunately, much of the work of these four important years was preparatory. To carry to a completion the numerous enterprises he had initiated became a duty which Mayor Flower felt he must, if possible, undertake. Therefore, as his term drew to a close, he allowed himself to be once more brought forward as a candidate of the reform party. The campaign which followed was fraught with momentous consequences both for him and to the city. Paul Capdevielle, Mayor The Flower administration was a turning-point in the history of New Orleans. It closed one epoch and opened another. With it the Reconstruction era came to an end. Thus although the election of 1900 witnessed a triumph of the "regulars," their victory was fairly won, and in the administration which then came into power there was an earnest and, on the whole, successful effort to continue the work begun in Flower's time. The "regular" nominee, Paul Capdevielle, had been considered for mayor in 1896, but he was not then in a position to accept the nomination, even had it been tendered him formally. But as the election of 1900 approached, he found himself differently circumstanced. As soon as it became known in the Sixth Ward, where he resided, that Capdevielle was a receptive candidate for the nomination, his friends organized a strong movement in his behalf, which had the support of a ward leader, Brewster. After a hot fight they succeeded in electing a Capdevielle delegation from the ward to the city nominating convention. The "regular" democratic convention met in March. The nomination of a candidate for mayor was put off till towards the end of the meeting. In selecting names for the other offices the time-honored custom of apportioning the names among the different wards was observed. Capdevielle was not without opposition in the convention. W. H. Byrnes, a well-known local insurance man, proved an active competitor for the first place on the ticket. At first it looked as though he would capture the nomination. Although the Citizens' League had lost a large part of its membership by gradual attraction back into the ranks of the "regular" organization, there still remained a considerable fraction of the organization faithful to its tradition. This group now decided to put Flower forward as an independent candidate. Had there been another available candidate the leaders would have preferred him. Flower's attitude of receptivity with regard to the "regular" nomination had been very displeasing to his late associates; but his administration had been so satisfactory that no other candidate could be found who so obviously merited the suffrages of the people or so emphatically deserved the endorsement conveyed in a renomination. However, some of the very men who engineered the Jeffersonian democracy did so with entire certainty that Flower could not be elected, and that the movement was valid only as a protest against "ring" rule and the "regular" election methods. The campaign though brief was spirited. Capdevielle announced his support of the principle of municipal ownership. His principal organ, the Picayune, supported him largely on that basis. But municipal ownership was not a vital issue in the election. Capdevielle only alluded to it casually in his utterances on the stump. The election took place on April 17. The extraordinarily bad weather which prevailed that day had no doubt considerable effect in cutting down Flower's vote. A rain fell of such intensity that many parts of the city were under water for hours. In some places voters had to be carried to the polls on the backs of men and boys; at others roughly-made rafts were pressed into service for the same purpose. Flower received 13,099 votes; Capdevielle, 19,366. The new administration was inducted into office on May 7, 1900. Mayor Capdevielle, in his inaugural address, made some important suggestions. He spoke of the drainage system which was about to be constructed, and pointed out that if the city desired to have its own electric light plant, it could operate it without much additional cost, by using the power house of the drainage system. This suggestion was in line with the theory of municipal ownership to which the new mayor had pledged himself in his campaign utterances. An act was accordingly passed in 1900, correcting the provisions in the previous law under which persons not bona fide citizens and residents of New Orleans might, by merely passing the examinations, qualify for employment under the city government. The new mayor, in his inaugural address, recommended that, although there was admittedly a great demand for further paving of city streets, in this matter the city should proceed slowly. Mayor Capdevielle pointed out that the drainage and sewerage plans remained to be carried out, and that the expenses connected with these works would be heavy; it was judicious, therefore, to limit the amount of paving until drainage and sewerage had been installed. The administration made some important arrangements with regard to the city railroads. In 1901 the extension of the Orleans Street Railroad was sold on the basis of the payment to the municipality of 4 per cent of its gross annual receipts. In May, the street railways company was granted permission to establish a belt line of Canal and Esplanade streets. In January, 1901, the historic Clay statue, which during almost fifty years had stood at the intersection of St. Charles and Canal streets, was removed to Lafayette Square. The claim was made that the statue interfered with the safe operation of the street cars in Canal Street. The rededication of the statue in its new location was made the occasion of interesting and appropriate ceremonies. In 1902 the various railway companies which till then had operated independently the various lines of street railroad, were consolidated under the name of the New Orleans Railways Company. With them were combined the electric light and gas companies. An important achievement was the recovery by the city of its markets. Litigation with that end in view was in process between the city and the market lessees. In December, 1900, an offer of compromise was accepted by the city. As a result, the city was able to take over the charge of these institutions at the beginning of the century. This was in line with the policy of municipal ownership to which the administration stood committed. The building of a new public market at the corner of Burgundy and Touro streets was another instance of the application of this principle. The city erected several other important new structures, the largest being a new jail. The old jail on South Robertson Street had fallen into a state of dilapidation where it was a reproach to the municipality. A contract for the erection of the present "House of Detention" was let among the first acts of the new administration. Street Car Strike of 1901 The street car strike of 1901 was also a matter of great expense to the administration. It lasted fifteen days, during which time no cars were run for passenger service in the entire city, except that old-fashioned horse-car between Gretna and Algiers, on the opposite side of the river. The first hint of trouble between the car company and its employees came in October, 1900, when there was a strike on the New Orleans & Carrollton road. This, however, was adjusted within forty-eight hours. Subsequently, the company, which had recently acquired complete control of all the electric lines in the city, effected with the men an arrangement regarded as satisfactory on both sides. This was in April. Shortly thereafter the company introduced a new and larger type of car, which enabled p541it to lay off certain employees, and also made changes in schedules which the men regarded as infractions of the April agreement. The company was also having trouble with its linemen, when, on September 24, 1901, the carmen, at a great meeting, formulated their demands and announced that, unless acceded to, a strike would follow. They wanted, among other things, an eight-hour working day, and 25 cents per hour. The company was given three days in which to consider the proposition. Its reply was made on the 26th and was a rejection of the demands, on the ground that the April agreement was still binding, and the men could make no demands justly until it expired, some months later on. The result was that at daybreak on September 27 every line in the city was tied up. About 2,000 men were affected. Thereafter for fifteen days the public either walked to and fro, or rode in improvised conveyances, wagons fitted with benches and automobiles being operated on regular schedules and doing a thriving business. The sympathy of the public was largely with the strikers. Many of the other trade organizations endorsed their movement. The linemen employed by the company also struck insofar as their work connected with the operation of the cars, but they remained at work in the lighting plant, which was also controlled by the company; and thus the city was supplied with light, although at one stage of the contest there seemed a strong probability that they would stop there also. Mayor Capdevielle interested himself actively to adjust the dispute. Similar steps were taken by a committee of Canal Street merchants. The company offered to arbitrate on October 1, but the strikers insisted that the schedule outlined in the last demand should be instituted pending a decision by the arbitrators; with the result that the two parties remained as wide apart as ever. The merchants' committee worked out a scheme of compromise on the basis of a 10-hour workday and minimum wage of 23 cents per hour, but this proved unacceptable. There was no violence till the first week in October closed. On the 8th the company attempted to run four cars on Canal Street, operated by strike-breakers imported from upriver, under police protection. But these were attacked at Galvez Street and put out of business. Several persons were injured, but none seriously. Three arrests were made. The mayor, apprehensive that the trouble might spread,issued a call for a city Milita, but only a few citizens responded. He then asked the Commander of the Marine Detachment at the Old Spanish Fort to order out the militia, but this extreme step was not taken till the following day. On that day a further attempt to operate passenger cars led to a hot fight at the corner of Dorgenois and Canal streets, in which pistols were freely used. Two policemen were wounded, and ten civilians, some of whom were strikers, and the remainder interested bystanders. A police patrol wagon hurrying to the scene was overturned, and the occupants, eight in number, all injured more or less severely. The following day, one Hundered and fifteen marines were under arms in their armories. No cars ran that day except those carrying the United States mail; which were suffered to operate regularly during the whole progress of the strike, without interference except on September 29, and that not of a serious order. On the 10th the commander notified the strikers that they must accept a scale of 20 cents per hour and a 10-hour day, with a minimum of $1.50 per diem; but that the cars must be operated, and if need be all the resources of the state would be used to protect them. The strikers accepted these terms. W. S. Parkerson, who conducted the negotiations with the strikers, was given the credit for the adjustment which was affected during the course of the day; and night fell upon a city greatly relieved to find that it had again escaped a serious danger. The street car company on its side agreed to take back, without discrimination, such of the men as were needed to operate the cars on the new schedules. The World Returns In early 1902, word from Upriver came that there were 'strangers' in the region from farther upriver than what was thought to be the boundary. Strange travellers dressed in clothing and carrying weapons that were strange and unusual. The local police had taken them into custody along with the provisions that they had brought for "trade." Upon further investigation, the travellers were from a shattered America that had undergone some sort of war or plague. The travelers were kept to a limited area with only a few visitors. Once they had gone back up river, the area was quarantined and observed for several months to ensure that there were no ill effects from the visit. Every several months, travellers return and trade basic goods such as metals and basic tools. The tales told by the travellers were initially supressed by the City Govenment, for fears that it was fabricated. In time this information leaked out to the general public, as science fiction stories published in the news papers. The term for which Capdevielle had been elected should have expired on May 7, 1904, but the City Council, at its meeting in 1902, adopted extensive amendments to the city charter, by which the life of the administration was prolonged till December 5, 1904. These amendments did not materially alter the forms of the city government. As the time for the November election approached, the leaders of the "regular" democratic organization agreed upon Charles Janvier as a suitable candidate for mayor. In many respects this choice was a happy one. Janvier had been prevented by a family bereavement from participating prominently in the city campaign of 1900. The fact that the League favored Janvier for mayor, therefore, made his nomination by the convention practically a certainty; but Janvier was unwilling to make the sacrifice which the acceptance of the mayoralty has always involved where a business man has consented to accept it. It meant the withdrawal for four years from active business life, the surrender of important business connections and the resignation of valuable agencies, and the necessity at the end of four years of beginning life all over again. Only a man of independent means could therefore undertake the office. This, in fact, has been one of the principal reasons why New p544Orleans has seldom had a business man of high standing in the community as its chief executive. Janvier's refusal of the nomination caused the leaders of the democracy to select one of their own number to head the ticket. The choice fell upon Martin Behrman. Martin Behrman (1904-1920) The Behrman administration, which began in 1904, was destined to last 16 years. The new mayor was inducted into office on December 5. On taking office Mayor Behrman addressed to the council a message in which he pointed out that that body, no less than himself, would be responsible for the success of the administration. He expressed his own determination to devote himself "with the entire strength of body and mind to a thorough and conscientious discharge of every obligation" incumbent upon him. "Moreover," he added, "I feel a confidence that persistent yet cautious effort along right lines of progress will yield fruits of advance in all the proper interests of the people and the approval of those who have honored me with this high trust." The necessity of keeping the city clean, of enforcing the laws, of maintaining order and organization, were the principal points stressed in the program of the administration. But attention was also directed to the need of additional funds for the police, the fire department, schools, etc. The general policy, it was announced, would be to abolish sinecures, and carry on the public business in a sound, businesslike manner In a general way, this policy was observed throughout the ensuing four years. The satisfaction with the administration was so great that at the end of that time, when Mayor Behrman presented himself as a candidate for renomination, he met with no opposition. In the interim there had been a change in the election laws. The long-honored custom of making the nominations by convention was abandoned. In its place was set up a primary election. The election took place on November 3, 1908, and resulted in Behrman receiving 25,914 votes; Tebault, 79 votes; and Porter, 194. The remainder of the democratic ticket was elected by large majorities. The contest in the Fifteenth Ward was the one feature of the election which attracted attention. The contestants were A. T. Wainwright and John Scherer. Wainwright was elected by 554 votes. Otherwise, the election awakened very little interest, Behrman's election having been conceded by everybody weeks in advance. The Cede In 1907, after several severe hurricane seasons, the City was faced with repairing the extensive levees along Lake Ponchartrain. The engineers determine that there was no feasable long term solution to the issue due to the height required to keep the lake at bay. A secondary plan was issued and the concept of The Cede was born. The plan was to allow nearly one third of the city to flood, and build levees on higher ground, allowing for both less construction and creating a breakwater to buffert the city against storm surges. Between 1907 and 1910 several areas were walled off and the streetcar tracks to the deep draft docks were elevated well above the water level. The city then issued vouchers for tax credits and a small sum of money to compensate property owners. The Military was allowed to take control of the Old Spanish Fort and the docks on the lake. In 1910 The Cede was flooded. Since then, tehbuildings have become havens for those seeking to stay out of the view of the public eye, the military, or the city police. In 1912 the City Council devised a new charter for the City of New Orleans. This instrument effected revolutionary changes in the form of government. It introduced what is known as the "commission" form of government. In adapting this "commission" form to local needs New Orleans reverted more or less to the type of government which it enjoyed under the charter of 1870. It is interesting to note that, referring to the "administrative" system of 1870, the late Judge W. W. Howe, an acknowledged authority on such subjects, expressed the opinion that it had been a success. "The administrators, as a rule," he says, "were citizens prominent either in business or politics, and as such far more amenable to public opinion than the ordinary councilman of the average American City. Their methods were essentially business-like and their legislation, as a whole, was characterized by public spirit and progress." The new charter eliminated all distinctions between the legislative and administrative branches of the government. The city was to be governed by a mayor and four commission councilmen at large, who together would constitute the Commission Council. These officers should be elected by a preponderance of the votes cast, and hold office for four years. Each of the commissioners, including the mayor, were required to give a bond of $50,000 for the faithful performance of his duties; the mayor's bond to be approved by the remainder of the Council, the bonds of the other members to be approved by the mayor. The mayor was charged with the general oversight of all departments, boards, and commissions of the city. He possessed none of the rights of assigning departments to his colleagues enjoyed by the mayors under the charter of 1870. The new charter provided that in the absence or disability of the mayor, the commissioner of public finance should be acting mayor of the city. The latter official was also made vice president of the Council. The salary of the mayor was fixed at $10,000 per annum; of the commissioners at $6,000 per annum. The first commission administration gave the city four years of government so satisfactory to the people that, at its close, there was virtually no opposition to the re-election of Behrman. The remainder of Behrman's term was uneventful, with the city falling into a easy rhythym. Trade from the Midwest had increased and the first forays into the scarred land beyond were undertaken. Eventually, the gate began opening with regularity and flat bottom barges could move between the lands. In 1920, Behrman was defeated by Andrew McShane. Andrew McShane (1920-1925) McShane was involved in New Orleans politics throughout his adult life. He was associated with the reform-oriented groups that were opposed to the machine politics of the Regular Democratic Organization, or Old Regulars. He held posts in the administrations of reform mayors Walter Flower and Paul Capdevielle. McShane ran for a city council seat in 1912 under a ‘good government’ platform, but lost. In the election of 1920, McShane was the mayoral nominee of the reform-oriented Orleans Democratic Organization. The endorsement of prominent business owners helped him narrowly defeat the incumbent Old Regular mayor, Martin Behrman. Despite the reform promises of the new administration, McShane was able to achieve very little. He and his administration were hampered by inexperience at city government and by dissension between various factions of his supporters. He was able to improve garbage collection, reform the Department of Public Works and the city’s finances, and create a system of one-way streets to improve traffic flow. Pirate Attack In August of 1924, a sailing ship flying the Jolly Roger sailed into Lake Ponchartrain turned broadsides and fired upon the Old Spanish Fort. The fort fired back, damaging the ship. Several barrages passed between the fort and the ship before the pair of Ironclads could be brought to bear on the attacking ship. The ship was severely damaged by the two ships but made it out of the area before being destroyed. Arthur Joseph O’Keefe (1925- Present) Arthur Joseph O’Keefe was elected as the replacement for Martin Behrman who won a 5th term but passed away a year into his term. Born in New Orleans, O’Keefe was the son of Arthur O’Keefe and Sarah (Hanley) O'Keefe. He was educated at St. Alphonsus High School and later went into business, eventually running his own coffee import company. He was also vice-president of the American Bank and Trust Company and director of the Lafayette Fire Insurance Company and the Mutual Building and Loan Association. He married Mamie McDonald of New Orleans in 1901. Before becoming mayor, O’Keefe was a prominent member of the Regular Democratic Organization, the political machine that had dominated New Orleans for decades. He served as the RDO's Tenth Ward boss, the city’s Commissioner for Public Finance from 1925 to 1926, and after long-time mayor Martin Behrman died in office O’Keefe was elevated to serve the remainder of Behrman’s term.

Shadows in the Darkness: History of New Orleans since the world left. (1889-1929 )

Colonial Era 
American Era 
Elections of 1888
Nightfall 
Irish Riots
John Fitzpatrick (1892-1896)
The Citizen's League Mayor (1896-1900)
Paul Capdevielle, Mayor (1900- 1904)
The World Returns
The Streetcar Strike of 1901
Martin Behrman (1904- 1920)
The Cede
Andrew McShane (1920-1925)
Pirate Attack
Present Day

Colonial History

New Orleans was founded in 1718 by the French as La Nouvelle-Orléans , under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. The site was selected because it was a rare bit of natural high ground along the flood-prone banks of the lower Mississippi , and was adjacent to a Native American trading route and portage between the Mississippi and Lake Pontchartrain via Bayou St. John (known to natives as Bayou Choupique). A community of French fur trappers and traders had existed along the bayou (in what is now the middle of New Orleans ) for more than a decade before the official founding of the city. Nouvelle-Orléans became the capital of French Louisiana in 1722, replacing Biloxi .

In 1763, the colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire and remained under Spanish control for 40 years.

The Great Fire of 1788 destroyed many of the existing structures in the city (800 houses were destroyed), which were made of wood. As a result of this, and a subsequent fire in 1795 (another 200 houses destroyed), much of 18th century architecture still present in the French Quarter was built under Spanish rule and demonstrates Spanish colonial characteristics, wood being replaced with bricks.

The three most impressive buildings of New Orleans come from the Spanish times: St. Louis Cathedral, the Cabildo and the Presbytere.

In 1795, Spain granted the United States "Right of Deposit" in New Orleans , allowing Americans to use the city's port facilities. Louisiana reverted to French control in 1801 after Napoleon re-acquired the territory from Spain by treaty. But in 1803, Napoleon sold Louisiana (which then included portions of more than a dozen present-day states) to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase . At this time the city of New Orleans had a population of about 10,000.

The American Era

In its early days it was noted for its cosmopolitan polyglot population and mixture of cultures. The city grew rapidly, with influxes of Americans, French and Creole French, many of the latter fleeing from the revolution in Haiti . During the War of 1812 the British sent a force to try to conquer the city, but they were defeated by forces led by Andrew Jackson some miles down river from the city at Chalmette , Louisiana on January 8, 1815 (commonly known as the Battle of New Orleans).

The population of the city doubled in the 1830s, and by 1840 the city's population was around 102,000, fourth-largest in the U.S, the largest city away from the Atlantic seaboard, as well as the largest in the South after Baltimore . However, population growth was at times plagued by yellow fever epidemics, such as the great scourge of 1853 that killed nearly 10,000 people in New Orleans .

New Orleans was the capital of the state of Louisiana until 1849, then again from 1865 to 1880. As a principal port it had a leading role in the slave trade, while at the same time having North America 's largest community of free persons of color. Early in the American Civil War it was captured by the Union (by David Farragut, son of Spanish emigrants, later named the first US Navy Vice-Admiral) without a battle, and hence was spared the destruction suffered by many other cities of the American South. It was the first captured city in the American South. It retains a historical flavor with a wealth of 19th century structures far beyond the early colonial city boundaries of the French Quarter. The city hosted the 1884 World's Fair, called the World Cotton Centennial.

1888 City Elections

The 1888 city elections were a turning point in the politics of New Orleans. Joseph A. Shakespeare (Former mayor 1880-1882) ran for a second term against the City Ring, who were supporters of the State Ring. The election was won by Shakespeare and the City Ring had to lick it's wounds for the time being.

Nightfall

June 16 1889 was the last day New Orleans would see a sunrise or sunset. The night sky stopped moving at 11:59 PM (though some would say that it was Midnight , and therefore June 17 th , ) and has not moved by any measurable amount in 40 years.

An unusual storm had been building the entire day of the 16 th and was whipping the waters of the Ponchartrain into whitecaps and smashing them over the levees. Alarmed by the unnatural occurrence (it was unlike any hurricane or storm ever recorded in New Orleans,) a ritual was performed by a handful of local Vodun. (Rumors abound that the younger Marie Laveau had gathered them and used her Mother's Skull in the ritual, and that earlier in the day a cat had broken the scrying mirror of Marie the elder releasing the storm.) The ritual was completed at 11:59:59 just before the clock struck Midnight . The storm mysteriously dissipated and after a pause, the clocks struck midnight .

The Irish Lynching Riots

While investigating the barrel murder of an Italian immigrant, Police Chief David Hennessey discovered the existence of a secret society operating in New Orleans, the Mafia. After collecting enough evidence to go public, shortly before he could come forward, he was assassinated on October 15, 1890.

His dying words to another officer were reported to have been "Dagos did it", dago being an insulting slur for Italians.

This killing became the first widely publicized Mafia incident in the United States, and resulted in hundreds of baseless arrests of newly arrived Italian immigrants and a major trial in 1891 in New Orleans in which nineteen people were indicted. Rumors about the Sicilian "Mafia" trying to take over New Orleans spread throughout the city, adding to the extreme prejudice and fear of the poor Italian immigrants that many native United States citizens had already developed.

A large riot occurred after those indicted were acquitted, with a mob storming the jailhouse and lynching the accused Italians, along with ten other Italians, none of whom had been involved in the case. The lynch mob brutally mutilated the Italian immigrants, apparently shouting, "Hang the dagos!" According to witnesses, the "cheers were deafening." Afterwards, a local paper recorded the incident, proclaiming "The little jail was crowded with Sicilians, whose low, receding foreheads, dark skin, repulsive countenances and slovenly attire proclaimed their brutal nature."

Mayor John Fitzpatrick 1892-1896

The 1892 Elections were notably quiet, and while the City thirsted for information from the outside world, they were happy to be only involved in local politcs.

John Fitzpatrick was elected over Mayor Shakespeare, as supported by a newly strengthened City Ring.

In his inaugural message to the council Fitzpatrick called attention to the numerous contracts given out by the previous administration. He promised to lend his best efforts to see that the obligations thus created were carried out. The history of his administration, insofar as its constructive politics were concerned, may be largely written in terms of the execution of these contracts. One of the most important of them was the completion of the purchase of the apparatus of the volunteer fire companies as part of the organization of the paid department.

Another important contract which Fitzpatrick inherited from his predecessor was that for the erection of the new courthouse and jail. The site for this building was already bought on Tulane Avenue, but the edifice was erected under the new administration and furnished throughout at a cost of $455,000. As originally contemplated, the payments for this important public improvement were to be made from the revenues of 1892-1897, but to the credit of the Fitzpatrick administration it must be said that it was all accomplished without trenching upon the revenues of the years subsequent to 1893.

The Fitzpatrick administration promptly put into place plans for a city wide drainage system, establishment of a Public Library, and electrification of the city railroads. Most of these works were completed, utilizing material from the Upriver region.

However, by 1894 the administration was embroiled in a scandal regarding rail lines and what detractors painted as bribery and graft. Fitzpatrick refused to suspend indicted members of the council, more from a political loyalty than any personal friendship and found himself reviled by the press and the public alike. He was soon facing impeachment proceedings, however the Mayor was eventually cleared of all charges.

Throughout Mayor Fitzpatrick's term there was trouble in the ranks of local labor. His enemies seized upon this circumstance to criticise the mayor for his well-known partiality towards the laboring man. The difficulties were attributed by these persons to his unwillingness to attack the problem of labor courageously and firmly.

The Citizen's League Mayor

The movement of protest against the existing situation in municipal affairs culminated in January, 1896, in the organization of a new political party, which called itself the Citizens' League. This organization was non-partisan, aimed only at the election of new city officials, the overturning of the system which had long dominated the administration of local affairs, and the election of such members from the city districts as would work for laws in line with these objects.

The league announced its candidate for mayor on March 21, 1896. The publication of the remainder of the ticket was postponed until the plans of the opposition could be seen. Walter C. Flower was the choice for mayor. Flower was a democrat of long standing and had always been a staunch, though not conspicuous, supporter of every movement in behalf of better government in the city. He had served two terms as president of the Cotton Exchange, in 1891 and 1892. The announcement that he had been selected to head the reform ticket was made by the Citizens' League speakers at a mass-meeting in the Fifth Ward. It was received with general satisfaction throughout the city.

The election took place on April 21. Considering the excitement which had attended the canvass, election day passed off with astonishingly little trouble. This result was perhaps due to the fact that the Citizens' League was known to be prepared for all eventualities. Its headquarters were established at Odd Fellows Hall, which then overlooked Lafayette Square. Here the threads of the organization were held by the leaders. A moment's notice would suffice to bring thither hundreds of resolute men. A force of 1,500 citizens armed with revolvers were distributed through the city in squads at the various polling places. Fortunately, no occasion rose to test the efficiency of these arrangements. Save for a cutting affair in the Third Ward, and sundry fist-fights, the day passed uneventfully.

Mayor Flower was inaugurated on April 27, 1896. His administration was, in the main, occupied with the re‑organization of the city government made necessary as a result of the enactment of the city charter of 1896. It will be remembered that one of the features of the Citizens' League program was the reform of the basic law of the city.

The preliminary steps looking to a modern system of drainage had been taken in the Fitzpatrick administration, but now Abraham Brittin, who had been elected to the city council on the Citizens' League ticket, distinguished himself by his advocacy of a plan whereby the city itself should undertake the work, and not leave it with a private corporation. Brittin demanded that with drainage should go water-supply and sewage, p526 and that these various activities should be concentrated under the control of a single board, and not left to the management of the city council.

Another important project made effective during the Flower administration was to put the wires underground in the commercial district. This was done by Ordinance No. 13,838, adopted December 15, 1897.

In 1899 the Sixth and Seventh Municipal Districts were for the first time lighted by electricity. Hitherto they had depended upon gas as an illuminant. The rest of the city had enjoyed the advantages of electric lighting since 1887.

The stimulating effect of the new order of things which began under Flower was felt also in the management of the city schools. Down to 1862 the old system of separate school boards which grew up between 1836 and 1852 was allowed to continue unchanged.

Unfortunately, much of the work of these four important years was preparatory. To carry to a completion the numerous enterprises he had initiated became a duty which Mayor Flower felt he must, if possible, undertake. Therefore, as his term drew to a close, he allowed himself to be once more brought forward as a candidate of the reform party. The campaign which followed was fraught with momentous consequences both for him and to the city.

Paul Capdevielle, Mayor

The Flower administration was a turning-point in the history of New Orleans. It closed one epoch and opened another. With it the Reconstruction era came to an end.

Thus although the election of 1900 witnessed a triumph of the "regulars," their victory was fairly won, and in the administration which then came into power there was an earnest and, on the whole, successful effort to continue the work begun in Flower's time. The "regular" nominee, Paul Capdevielle, had been considered for mayor in 1896, but he was not then in a position to accept the nomination, even had it been tendered him formally. But as the election of 1900 approached, he found himself differently circumstanced. As soon as it became known in the Sixth Ward, where he resided, that Capdevielle was a receptive candidate for the nomination, his friends organized a strong movement in his behalf, which had the support of a ward leader, Brewster. After a hot fight they succeeded in electing a Capdevielle delegation from the ward to the city nominating convention.

The "regular" democratic convention met in March. The nomination of a candidate for mayor was put off till towards the end of the meeting. In selecting names for the other offices the time-honored custom of apportioning the names among the different wards was observed. Capdevielle was not without opposition in the convention. W. H. Byrnes, a well-known local insurance man, proved an active competitor for the first place on the ticket. At first it looked as though he would capture the nomination.

Although the Citizens' League had lost a large part of its membership by gradual attraction back into the ranks of the "regular" organization, there still remained a considerable fraction of the organization faithful to its tradition. This group now decided to put Flower forward as an independent candidate. Had there been another available candidate the leaders would have preferred him. Flower's attitude of receptivity with regard to the "regular" nomination had been very displeasing to his late associates; but his administration had been so satisfactory that no other candidate could be found who so obviously merited the suffrages of the people or so emphatically deserved the endorsement conveyed in a renomination. However, some of the very men who engineered the Jeffersonian democracy did so with entire certainty that Flower could not be elected, and that the movement was valid only as a protest against "ring" rule and the "regular" election methods.

The campaign though brief was spirited. Capdevielle announced his support of the principle of municipal ownership. His principal organ, the Picayune, supported him largely on that basis. But municipal ownership was not a vital issue in the election. Capdevielle only alluded to it casually in his utterances on the stump.

The election took place on April 17. The extraordinarily bad weather which prevailed that day had no doubt considerable effect in cutting down Flower's vote. A rain fell of such intensity that many parts of the city were under water for hours. In some places voters had to be carried to the polls on the backs of men and boys; at others roughly-made rafts were pressed into service for the same purpose. Flower received 13,099 votes; Capdevielle, 19,366.

The new administration was inducted into office on May 7, 1900. Mayor Capdevielle, in his inaugural address, made some important suggestions. He spoke of the drainage system which was about to be constructed, and pointed out that if the city desired to have its own electric light plant, it could operate it without much additional cost, by using the power house of the drainage system. This suggestion was in line with the theory of municipal ownership to which the new mayor had pledged himself in his campaign utterances.

An act was accordingly passed in 1900, correcting the provisions in the previous law under which persons not bona fide citizens and residents of New Orleans might, by merely passing the examinations, qualify for employment under the city government.

The new mayor, in his inaugural address, recommended that, although there was admittedly a great demand for further paving of city streets, in this matter the city should proceed slowly. Mayor Capdevielle pointed out that the drainage and sewerage plans remained to be carried out, and that the expenses connected with these works would be heavy; it was judicious, therefore, to limit the amount of paving until drainage and sewerage had been installed.

The administration made some important arrangements with regard to the city railroads. In 1901 the extension of the Orleans Street Railroad was sold on the basis of the payment to the municipality of 4 per cent of its gross annual receipts. In May, the street railways company was granted permission to establish a belt line of Canal and Esplanade streets. In January, 1901, the historic Clay statue, which during almost fifty years had stood at the intersection of St. Charles and Canal streets, was removed to Lafayette Square. The claim was made that the statue interfered with the safe operation of the street cars in Canal Street. The rededication of the statue in its new location was made the occasion of interesting and appropriate ceremonies. In 1902 the various railway companies which till then had operated independently the various lines of street railroad, were consolidated under the name of the New Orleans Railways Company. With them were combined the electric light and gas companies.

An important achievement was the recovery by the city of its markets. Litigation with that end in view was in process between the city and the market lessees. In December, 1900, an offer of compromise was accepted by the city. As a result, the city was able to take over the charge of these institutions at the beginning of the century. This was in line with the policy of municipal ownership to which the administration stood committed. The building of a new public market at the corner of Burgundy and Touro streets was another instance of the application of this principle. The city erected several other important new structures, the largest being a new jail. The old jail on South Robertson Street had fallen into a state of dilapidation where it was a reproach to the municipality. A contract for the erection of the present "House of Detention" was let among the first acts of the new administration.

Street Car Strike of 1901

The street car strike of 1901 was also a matter of great expense to the administration. It lasted fifteen days, during which time no cars were run for passenger service in the entire city, except that old-fashioned horse-car between Gretna and Algiers, on the opposite side of the river. The first hint of trouble between the car company and its employees came in October, 1900, when there was a strike on the New Orleans & Carrollton road. This, however, was adjusted within forty-eight hours. Subsequently, the company, which had recently acquired complete control of all the electric lines in the city, effected with the men an arrangement regarded as satisfactory on both sides. This was in April. Shortly thereafter the company introduced a new and larger type of car, which enabled p541it to lay off certain employees, and also made changes in schedules which the men regarded as infractions of the April agreement. The company was also having trouble with its linemen, when, on September 24, 1901, the carmen, at a great meeting, formulated their demands and announced that, unless acceded to, a strike would follow. They wanted, among other things, an eight-hour working day, and 25 cents per hour. The company was given three days in which to consider the proposition. Its reply was made on the 26th and was a rejection of the demands, on the ground that the April agreement was still binding, and the men could make no demands justly until it expired, some months later on. The result was that at daybreak on September 27 every line in the city was tied up. About 2,000 men were affected. Thereafter for fifteen days the public either walked to and fro, or rode in improvised conveyances, wagons fitted with benches and automobiles being operated on regular schedules and doing a thriving business. The sympathy of the public was largely with the strikers. Many of the other trade organizations endorsed their movement. The linemen employed by the company also struck insofar as their work connected with the operation of the cars, but they remained at work in the lighting plant, which was also controlled by the company; and thus the city was supplied with light, although at one stage of the contest there seemed a strong probability that they would stop there also.

Mayor Capdevielle interested himself actively to adjust the dispute. Similar steps were taken by a committee of Canal Street merchants. The company offered to arbitrate on October 1, but the strikers insisted that the schedule outlined in the last demand should be instituted pending a decision by the arbitrators; with the result that the two parties remained as wide apart as ever. The merchants' committee worked out a scheme of compromise on the basis of a 10-hour workday and minimum wage of 23 cents per hour, but this proved unacceptable. There was no violence till the first week in October closed. On the 8th the company attempted to run four cars on Canal Street, operated by strike-breakers imported from upriver, under police protection. But these were attacked at Galvez Street and put out of business. Several persons were injured, but none seriously. Three arrests were made. The mayor, apprehensive that the trouble might spread,issued a call for a city Milita, but only a few citizens responded. He then asked the Commander of the Marine Detachment at the Old Spanish Fort to order out the militia, but this extreme step was not taken till the following day. On that day a further attempt to operate passenger cars led to a hot fight at the corner of Dorgenois and Canal streets, in which pistols were freely used. Two policemen were wounded, and ten civilians, some of whom were strikers, and the remainder interested bystanders. A police patrol wagon hurrying to the scene was overturned, and the occupants, eight in number, all injured more or less severely.

The following day, one Hundered and fifteen marines were under arms in their armories. No cars ran that day except those carrying the United States mail; which were suffered to operate regularly during the whole progress of the strike, without interference except on September 29, and that not of a serious order. On the 10th the commander notified the strikers that they must accept a scale of 20 cents per hour and a 10-hour day, with a minimum of $1.50 per diem; but that the cars must be operated, and if need be all the resources of the state would be used to protect them. The strikers accepted these terms. W. S. Parkerson, who conducted the negotiations with the strikers, was given the credit for the adjustment which was affected during the course of the day; and night fell upon a city greatly relieved to find that it had again escaped a serious danger. The street car company on its side agreed to take back, without discrimination, such of the men as were needed to operate the cars on the new schedules.

The World Returns

In early 1902, word from Upriver came that there were 'strangers' in the region from farther upriver than what was thought to be the boundary. Strange travellers dressed in clothing and carrying weapons that were strange and unusual. The local police had taken them into custody along with the provisions that they had brought for "trade."

Upon further investigation, the travellers were from a shattered America that had undergone some sort of war or plague. The travelers were kept to a limited area with only a few visitors. Once they had gone back up river, the area was quarantined and observed for several months to ensure that there were no ill effects from the visit. Every several months, travellers return and trade basic goods such as metals and basic tools.

The tales told by the travellers were initially supressed by the City Govenment, for fears that it was fabricated. In time this information leaked out to the general public, as science fiction stories published in the news papers.

The term for which Capdevielle had been elected should have expired on May 7, 1904, but the City Council, at its meeting in 1902, adopted extensive amendments to the city charter, by which the life of the administration was prolonged till December 5, 1904. These amendments did not materially alter the forms of the city government.

As the time for the November election approached, the leaders of the "regular" democratic organization agreed upon Charles Janvier as a suitable candidate for mayor. In many respects this choice was a happy one. Janvier had been prevented by a family bereavement from participating prominently in the city campaign of 1900.

The fact that the League favored Janvier for mayor, therefore, made his nomination by the convention practically a certainty; but Janvier was unwilling to make the sacrifice which the acceptance of the mayoralty has always involved where a business man has consented to accept it. It meant the withdrawal for four years from active business life, the surrender of important business connections and the resignation of valuable agencies, and the necessity at the end of four years of beginning life all over again. Only a man of independent means could therefore undertake the office. This, in fact, has been one of the principal reasons why New p544Orleans has seldom had a business man of high standing in the community as its chief executive. Janvier's refusal of the nomination caused the leaders of the democracy to select one of their own number to head the ticket. The choice fell upon Martin Behrman.

Martin Behrman (1904-1920)

The Behrman administration, which began in 1904, was destined to last 16 years. The new mayor was inducted into office on December 5.

On taking office Mayor Behrman addressed to the council a message in which he pointed out that that body, no less than himself, would be responsible for the success of the administration. He expressed his own determination to devote himself "with the entire strength of body and mind to a thorough and conscientious discharge of every obligation" incumbent upon him. "Moreover," he added, "I feel a confidence that persistent yet cautious effort along right lines of progress will yield fruits of advance in all the proper interests of the people and the approval of those who have honored me with this high trust." The necessity of keeping the city clean, of enforcing the laws, of maintaining order and organization, were the principal points stressed in the program of the administration. But attention was also directed to the need of additional funds for the police, the fire department, schools, etc. The general policy, it was announced, would be to abolish sinecures, and carry on the public business in a sound, businesslike manner

In a general way, this policy was observed throughout the ensuing four years. The satisfaction with the administration was so great that at the end of that time, when Mayor Behrman presented himself as a candidate for renomination, he met with no opposition. In the interim there had been a change in the election laws. The long-honored custom of making the nominations by convention was abandoned. In its place was set up a primary election.

The election took place on November 3, 1908, and resulted in Behrman receiving 25,914 votes; Tebault, 79 votes; and Porter, 194. The remainder of the democratic ticket was elected by large majorities. The contest in the Fifteenth Ward was the one feature of the election which attracted attention. The contestants were A. T. Wainwright and John Scherer. Wainwright was elected by 554 votes. Otherwise, the election awakened very little interest, Behrman's election having been conceded by everybody weeks in advance.

The Cede

In 1907, after several severe hurricane seasons, the City was faced with repairing the extensive levees along Lake Ponchartrain. The engineers determine that there was no feasable long term solution to the issue due to the height required to keep the lake at bay. A secondary plan was issued and the concept of The Cede was born.

The plan was to allow nearly one third of the city to flood, and build levees on higher ground, allowing for both less construction and creating a breakwater to buffert the city against storm surges.

Between 1907 and 1910 several areas were walled off and the streetcar tracks to the deep draft docks were elevated well above the water level. The city then issued vouchers for tax credits and a small sum of money to compensate property owners. The Military was allowed to take control of the Old Spanish Fort and the docks on the lake. In 1910 The Cede was flooded.

Since then, tehbuildings have become havens for those seeking to stay out of the view of the public eye, the military, or the city police.

In 1912 the City Council devised a new charter for the City of New Orleans. This instrument effected revolutionary changes in the form of government. It introduced what is known as the "commission" form of government. In adapting this "commission" form to local needs New Orleans reverted more or less to the type of government which it enjoyed under the charter of 1870. It is interesting to note that, referring to the "administrative" system of 1870, the late Judge W. W. Howe, an acknowledged authority on such subjects, expressed the opinion that it had been a success. "The administrators, as a rule," he says, "were citizens prominent either in business or politics, and as such far more amenable to public opinion than the ordinary councilman of the average American City. Their methods were essentially business-like and their legislation, as a whole, was characterized by public spirit and progress."

The new charter eliminated all distinctions between the legislative and administrative branches of the government. The city was to be governed by a mayor and four commission councilmen at large, who together would constitute the Commission Council. These officers should be elected by a preponderance of the votes cast, and hold office for four years. Each of the commissioners, including the mayor, were required to give a bond of $50,000 for the faithful performance of his duties; the mayor's bond to be approved by the remainder of the Council, the bonds of the other members to be approved by the mayor. The mayor was charged with the general oversight of all departments, boards, and commissions of the city. He possessed none of the rights of assigning departments to his colleagues enjoyed by the mayors under the charter of 1870. The new charter provided that in the absence or disability of the mayor, the commissioner of public finance should be acting mayor of the city. The latter official was also made vice president of the Council. The salary of the mayor was fixed at $10,000 per annum; of the commissioners at $6,000 per annum.

The first commission administration gave the city four years of government so satisfactory to the people that, at its close, there was virtually no opposition to the re-election of Behrman.

The remainder of Behrman's term was uneventful, with the city falling into a easy rhythym. Trade from the Midwest had increased and the first forays into the scarred land beyond were undertaken. Eventually, the gate began opening with regularity and flat bottom barges could move between the lands.

In 1920, Behrman was defeated by Andrew McShane.

Andrew McShane (1920-1925)

McShane was involved in New Orleans politics throughout his adult life. He was associated with the reform-oriented groups that were opposed to the machine politics of the Regular Democratic Organization, or Old Regulars. He held posts in the administrations of reform mayors Walter Flower and Paul Capdevielle. McShane ran for a city council seat in 1912 under a ‘good government’ platform, but lost.

In the election of 1920, McShane was the mayoral nominee of the reform-oriented Orleans Democratic Organization. The endorsement of prominent business owners helped him narrowly defeat the incumbent Old Regular mayor, Martin Behrman.

Despite the reform promises of the new administration, McShane was able to achieve very little. He and his administration were hampered by inexperience at city government and by dissension between various factions of his supporters. He was able to improve garbage collection, reform the Department of Public Works and the city’s finances, and create a system of one-way streets to improve traffic flow.

Pirate Attack

In August of 1924, a sailing ship flying the Jolly Roger sailed into Lake Ponchartrain turned broadsides and fired upon the Old Spanish Fort. The fort fired back, damaging the ship. Several barrages passed between the fort and the ship before the pair of Ironclads could be brought to bear on the attacking ship. The ship was severely damaged by the two ships but made it out of the area before being destroyed.

Arthur Joseph O’Keefe (1925- Present)

Arthur Joseph O’Keefe was elected as the replacement for Martin Behrman who won a 5th term but passed away a year into his term.

Born in New Orleans, O’Keefe was the son of Arthur O’Keefe and Sarah (Hanley) O'Keefe. He was educated at St. Alphonsus High School and later went into business, eventually running his own coffee import company. He was also vice-president of the American Bank and Trust Company and director of the Lafayette Fire Insurance Company and the Mutual Building and Loan Association. He married Mamie McDonald of New Orleans in 1901. Before becoming mayor, O’Keefe was a prominent member of the Regular Democratic Organization, the political machine that had dominated New Orleans for decades. He served as the RDO's Tenth Ward boss, the city’s Commissioner for Public Finance from 1925 to 1926, and after long-time mayor Martin Behrman died in office O’Keefe was elevated to serve the remainder of Behrman’s term.